Badger by John Clare essays

Badger by John Clare essays John Clare was born in the village of Helpstone, Northamptonshire, England in 1793. He was the son of an agricultural laborer and he himself was a hedge setter, day laborer and was gardener at Burghley House from 1810 to 1811. He had no schooling so instead he studied James Thompson's Seasons and began verse writing. His poetic gift came from his parents - his father, a flail thresher, could recite over a hundred ballads and songs and his mother also sang ballads and told traditional stories. He enjoyed a brief celebrity as a 'peasant-poet'. (Peasant poet: one who is steeped in tradition of oral culture, regional dialect, and non-standard grammar. Characterized by innocence, not formally educated, interested in the landscape, class conscious, controlled and celebrated by superiors/publishers, simple language. Peasant poets usually end up losing innocence to formal diction in an effort to conform; Clare resists this.) This term represents many of the things that Clare wrote about in his works and explains why he used the grammar and style that he used. In 1837, as a result of his long disappointment of having to move away from his love, he had a mental breakdown and was admitted to an asylum in Epping Forest. Four years later, he took himself out and walked the 80 miles home in three and a half days, living on grass he ate by the side of the road. Towards the end of the year of 1841, he was certified insane and was committed to the Northampton Asylum. He lived there until his death in 1864 writing occasionally. The Badger was a very interesting poem. By taking the first step in analyzing and using the objective approach which means a study of the literary work done without reference to the mimetic, affective, or expressive possibilities of interpretation. It also regards the literary work as an object, having an independent existence and capable of allowing and supporting inquiry wi ...

Profile of Murder Victim Carlie Brucia

Profile of Murder Victim Carlie Brucia On Sunday, February 1, 2004, in Sarasota, Florida, 11-year-old Carlie Jane Brucia was on her way home from a sleepover at her friends house. Her stepfather, Steve Kansler, was on his way to pick her up en route, but never found her. Carlie, deciding to cut through a car wash not far from her home, was approached by a man and led away, never to be seen alive again. The surveillance camera at the car wash showed a man in a uniform type shirt approaching Carlie, saying something to her, and then leading her away. NASA, with some technology used in the investigation of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, assisted the investigation by working with the video to enhance the image. The FBI also worked to help find Brucia and the man who abducted her. After receiving tips as to the identification of the man, the Sarasota police questioned Joseph P. Smith, who had been in their custody on an unrelated parole violation charge since the day after Carlie was abducted. A woman who said she lived with Smith was one of the tipsters who contacted the police. Smith refused to admit to any involvement with Carlie Brucias disappearance. On February 6, it was announced that Carlie Brucias body had been found. She had been murdered and left in a church parking lot just miles from her home. A History of Kidnapping Joseph Smith, a 37-year old car mechanic, and father of three who had been arrested at least thirteen times in Florida since 1993, and had been previously charged with kidnapping and false imprisonment, was held in custody as the main suspect in the murder of Carlie Brucia. On February 20, Smith was indicted on a first-degree murder and separate charges of kidnapping and capital sexual battery was filed by the Florida attorneys office. The Trial During the trial, the jury saw the videotape and heard testimony from several witnesses who said they recognized Smith when they saw the video on television. The video also picked up tattoos on Smiths arm, which were identified during the trial. The videotape was not the only evidence linking Smith to the crime. DNA evidence was presented that identified semen found on the girls clothes matching that of Smith. The jury also heard testimony from Smiths brother, John Smith, who led police to Carlies body near a church after his brother confessed to the crime to him during a jail visit. He told jurors that his brother told him that he had rough sex with the 11-year-old Sarasota girl before he strangled her to death. He also  testified that he had recognized his brother in the videotape that pictured Carlie being lead away by a man behind a car wash. Closing Arguments During Prosecutor Craig Schaeffers closing statement, he reminded jurors of the videotape showing Smith leading Carlie Brucia away, and to Smiths DNA found on her shirt and of the taped admissions that he killed her. How do we know this man killed Carlie? Schaeffer asked the jurors. He told us. Smiths defense attorney shocked the courtroom when he declined to give a  closing statement. Your honor, opposing counsel, members of the jury, we waive closing argument, Adam Tebrugge said. Found Guilty On October 24, 2005, a Sarasota, Florida jury took less than six hours to find Joseph P. Smith guilty of first-degree murder, sexual battery, and kidnapping of Carlie Brucia. In December  2005, the jury voted 10 to 2 for the death sentence. During a hearing in February 2006, Smith cried while apologizing to the court for murdering  Brucia and said that he tried to kill himself by taking overdoses of heroin and cocaine on the day of the murder. He also asked the judge to spare his life for the sake of his family. Sentencing On March 15, 2006, Circuit Court Judge Andrew Owens sentenced Smith to life in prison without the possibility of parole for assault and kidnapping. Carlie endured unspeakable trauma, which began at the time of her kidnapping, Owens said before the sentencing. The image of the defendant taking her arm and leading her away no doubt will forever be etched in our minds...During the sexual and physical abuse, Carlie was subjected to, at 11 years of age, there is no doubt she was aware of her dire predicament and that she had little or no hope of survival...Her death was consciousless and pitiless ... calculated and premeditated. He then sentenced Joseph P. Smith to death by lethal injection.

Introduce wordMicrobreweries from Pacific Northwest and Alaska Essay

Introduce wordMicrobreweries from Pacific Northwest and Alaska - Essay Example After this deregulation, the area witnessed a sudden rise in the number of microbreweries largely due to the related profitability and comparatively lower investment to start the business. In the U.S, the term microbrewery is used to refer to a beer production unit that produces < 15000 barrels/annum (Bamforth n.p.). A rapid growth in the establishment of new microbreweries is evident in Alaska and places to drink by the name of brewpubs are rapidly emerging which can provide up to 36oz/day to an average customer. During recent times, microbrewers have teamed up to form guilds that work collectively for the betterment of the microbrewers as a whole. The â€Å"Brewers guild of Alaska† is one such body which aims to strengthen networking base for brewers and suppliers, retailers and various others. The purpose of such bodies is to safeguard the interests of microbrewers who in majority of cases work independently of one

Spalting wood history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Spalting wood history - Essay Example Although there was a reduction in use of splated wood in art and craft between the mid-16th and early 20th centuries, scientists have been continually using spalting in wood. In the early 1900s, there was an increased interest with spalting for people who knew it as a craft material, a biological artifact or those that saw it as a nuisance that needed control. The anamorph of Chlorciboria as Dothiorina tulasnei were classified by Hohnel (1915), Robert Hartig in a 1900 publication Lehrbuch der Pfanzenkrankheiten, wrote the fungal cause of blue stained lumber and suggested the fungus Ceratostoma piliferum which is currently known as Ceratocystis pilifera, widely known as blue stain fungus as culprit. Fredrick Tom Brooks filed a patent in 1913 called Improvements in or Relating to Colouring and/or Preserving Wood because of the possibilities of pigmented spalted wood (Brooks 1913). Brooks was comfortable enough with the green stain pigment production of the Chlorociboria genus to induce it artificially in wood, which he retrieved from the work of Vuillemin, despite that during this time, the work of fungi on wood was on the onset of development. Brooks used single spore isolations to inoculate sterilized wood, incubated it under wet and sterile conditions and dried the wood before decay could take place. His identification of the specific genus that creates the unique blue-gree wood of historic intarsias was perfect. The specific species that he would like to work with Chlorosplenium aeruginosum and Peziza aeruginosa are detailed in his patent as fungi that can produce green stain in wood, and are limited to the colonization of other wood decay fungi. Today, spalting is inducedby similar processes to Brook’s inoculation method. Brooks’ patent came up during when pigmented wood found on a merchantable timber was being investigated heavily to find out cause. In 1903, the United States Department

Vicos Project (Case Analysis) Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Vicos Project (Case Analysis) - Term Paper Example Gildner (2009) reveals that for the Peruvian elites had for many decades attempted to bring an indigenous population largely viewed as backwards and pre-modern into the world of modernity without success. Therefore, it was thought that Cornell Peru Project (CPP) could bring to an end this kind of development dilemma. Cornell, working in partnership with the Instituto Indigenista Peruano (Peruvian Indigenous Institute, IIP), researched both provoked and studied social change among this indigenous population at Vicos using participant intervention method (Cornell University, n.d). By improving conditions in vital areas of education, health care, and agriculture, local anthropologists sought to insulate discrete agents of change and to monitor how effective they were. The main aim of doing this was to help improve the living standards of living of Vicos inhabitants. The most practical impact of U.S modernization efforts at Vicos came about because of pushing the Peruvian indigesimo towards an integrationalist position while marginalizing more radical advocacy for agrarian reforms. Gildner (2009) notes that the researchers of CPP found themselves between indigenous communities demanding land redistribution and land owners in the rural areas seeking the maintenance of property rights. Acting as an alternative to agrarian reform, the CPP promoted a more traditional answer to the â€Å"Indian problem† aimed at cultural assimilation as well as incorporation of politics through Spanish literacy training, increased political participation and compulsory military service. Gildner (2009) argues that this â€Å"conservative wait-and-see approach† came about from the isolated and objective science intrinsic to the modernization efforts of Cornell’s team. The success of the project was also based on power. It is the power that helped th e Vicosinos achieve a wider sharing of positive values than they had under manorial regime. Wood (1975) notes that power was recognized as a key element in change and the distribution of power in the form of participation and responsibility in decision-making to people in the community. This happened to be one of the major goals of CPP according to Wood (1975). To ensure that this became successful, CPP created a decision-making power base for the entire community through the mayorales, which is a political group within the hacienda system. Wood notes that, despite the mayorales being older men and less susceptible to innovation compared to other members of the society, the project coordinators felt that it was viable to work through traditional authority group to help drive the agenda. Research conducted by Cornell University was also aimed at stimulating and promoting technological change in underdeveloped areas. Wood reveals

Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)

Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) 3.1. Introduction GMP the building blocks for HACCP. In several years, producer, retailer and industrialist use Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) as appropriate method in order to produce good quality of food. Food producers keep on developing GMP regulations. Now, it uses as prerequisite program on HACCP system or food safety system. Good Manufacturing Practices should be selected and adopted before HACCP is implemented. Without the application of CGMP principles, an effective HACCP program cannot be conducted. Furthermore, GMP must be applied to the development of sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOP). Compliance with specific GMP should be included as part of HACCP. The areas that should be addressed through CGMPs are personal hygiene and other practices, buildings and facilities, equipment and utensils, and production and process controls. CGMPs should be broad in nature (Marriot, 2007). There can hardly be HACCP without Good Manufacturing or Management Practices (GMP). Briefly, GMP is a description of all the steps (which should represent good practice) in a processing facility, while HACCP is a documentation that the steps important to consumer health are under control (Arvanitoyannis and Theodoros, 2009) GMP application is also a basic part of Total Quality Management Program (TQMP). GMP application should be explain in briefly and clearly about problems and procedures on every stage on food processing. 3.2. Definition GMP and SSOP are interrelated and an important part of process control. CGMP are the minimum sanitary and processing requirements necessary to ensure the production of wholesome meat. GMP is one of supporting program for implementation of HACCP system. GMP make food product have a good quality and safety; it is also make product widely acceptable for consumers in domestic and international market. Based on Ministry of Marine Affair and Fisheries Regulation (2007), GMP is the guideline on good prerequisite and production procedures on fish processing unit. GMP is a combination of the production and quality control, to ensure that food manufacturers or processing are following the right step of its production line consistenly and spesifically. GMP refers to the regulation that firstly declared by the US Food Drug Administration (FDA) after being revised in 1986. GMP regulation is aimed to protect the consumer to avoid purchasing any dangerous or contaminated products. Its require a good quality approach of manufacturing and processing product to eliminate errors and failure. Nowadays, the function of GMP is getting more important as pre-requisite program of HACCP; therefore it has to be implemented prior the HACCP system together with the application of SSOP. 3.3. Scope According to Darwanto and Murniyati (2003), on operational processing unit, company management should be check on processing activities for evaluating: a. suitability, quality, and all input factor such as fish, food additives, ingredients, packaging, labeling etc; b. control suitability and condition of manufacturing namely construction, maintenance, sanitation, operation, and equipments that are use on fish processing; c. fulfillment of end products requirements are quality, safety, healthy, and also composition and grade of quality on product; d. staff checking on their health, hygiene and qualification. 3.4. GMP components 3.4.1. Location and Building Requirement 3.4.1.1. Location Seafood plant is consider of a suitable location. Some factors should be considered namely physical, geographical and infrastructure available. A plant must be adequate on a plot of adequate size, easy access on transportation by road, rail or water. An adequate of water should be available throughout the year. Seafood plants contain significant amounts of organic matter which must be removed before waste water is discharge into river or the sea. It also solid waste handling needs careful or appropriate planning, appropriate space, must be available. The immediate physical surroundings of a seafood factory should be landscape and present on attractive view to the visitor. Shrubbery should be at least 10 meter away from factory building and a grass free strip covered with a layer of gravel should follow the outer wall of buildings (Huss, 1994). In addition, the factory location should be large enough for expansion and should be attractively landscaped with natural features such as tree retained wherever possible. Paved or asphalt area are needed in factory, car pack should be situated at a reasonable walking distance from the factories to reduce fumes and noise (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). 3.4.1.2. Building There are several requirements for fish factories buildings. The materials that used on building materials should be have the specific characteristics. There are specific characteristics such as non-porous, non-toxic, easily cleaned, rodent proof, smooth flat, etc. According to Huss (1994), on food processing industries should have the particular characteristics on materials which are use on food industries. Food factories should be designed and built for particular purposes with materials capable of withstanding various physical conditions. The principal factors to consider are heat, cold, humidity, and vibration. On fish processing, interior surfaces should be smooth, non-porous, easily cleaned and not vulnerable to chemical attack by modern detergents and disinfectants, or able to sustain biological/microbiological growth. Good natural light and screened electric light must be provided. Paints and other surface coats should be non-toxic and not flake; those that contain mould inhibitors must not come into contact with foods. Pipe work, drainage ducts, conduits for power supply and other channels should be tightly sealed where they pass through walls, floors and ceilings to prevent entry of vermin and insects (Huss, 1994). Overhead pipe work sometimes passes directly over process lines and water condensed on the pipes can drip on the underlying food and equipment (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). Ventilation on fish factory have to efficient and ceiling should be constructed of and finished with materials that obviate condensation, paint flatting, and mould growth. The panel construction being made of various PVC, reinforced resins, PVC-faced plasterboard, PVC-foil-faced foam board or plastic-coated steels (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). Walls should be constructed with durable materials and in certain situation. All wall angles, corners and junctions of walls and floors must be imperiously sealed and be rounded for ease of cleaning. Coving of the wall/floor junction of walls to a height of. C. 15 cm. Modern materials that are used on wall include polypropylene and different PVCs. Suitable polymers and glass-reinforced PVC can be layered on a thin metallic surface with a cladding of suitable insulating materials (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). Floor is that surface should be non-slip and easy to clean and disinfect. The quality of the floor surface can be improved by topping the concrete with appropriate materials. These include epoxy, polyester or acrylic resins, chlorinated and styrene butadiene rubbers and bituminous paints and mastics. The resins have a number of advantages such as durable, easy to clean, good non-slip surface, smooth but became saturated and absorb water under water condition. Tiles can provide a relatively long lasting and impervious surface. However, there are weaknesses since they crack, lift to be under run by water, and are difficult to replace satisfactory (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). Ideally, building have to impose no constraints on any process or plant layout. However, production line are sited in unsuitable buildings as an economic necessity. Construction of building can be based on reinforce concrete or steel frame. In the framed structure the external walls are essentially a skin design to protect personnel and equipment inside. It means that the external walls can be constructed of relatively light material namely aluminum (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). 3.4.1.3. Plant layout Layout of food industries be laid out with clear, preferably ‘straight through lines of product flow. Final or intermediate processes must be separate to avoid cross-contamination by raw materials. According to Kotschevar and Terrell (1977) in Forsythe and Hayes, (1998), there are eight principle in efficiency flow of work in food service area are: function should proceed in proper sequence directly, with a minimum of criss-crossing and backtracking; smooth and rapid production; delay and storage of materials in processing should be eliminated; worker and materials should cover minimum distances; materials and tools should receive minimum handling, and equipment minimum worker handling; maximum utilization of space and equipment should be achieved; quality control must be sought at all critical points; minimum cost production should be sought. With eight principles, these layouts will minimize recontamination of fish process or raw materials. The preparation areas for all raw materials and all product should be physically separated by appropriate walls. The movement of operators between the separate processing areas should be use of allocated colored clothing and control by management. Facilities for washing hands with knee or foot operated hot water taps should be positioned at all pedestrian entrances in food factories as well as in the toilets. Suitable liquid unperfumed soaps, barrier creams and disposable towels must be provided at all times, with instruction given also their proper use. Floors should be durable, smooth, easily cleaned and carefully insulated; in addition, because of the problem of ‘frost heave where the subsoil becomes frozen to a depth of 1-2 cm causing weakening of the foundations, a heating walls and ceiling should also be durable, smooth and easily cleaned; material such as galvanized steel is particularly recommended. Design layout of cold stores should aim at keeping the environment as constant a possible. Thus the entry of warm air should be minimized by providing properly insulated double doors with an air lock and, as with chill rooms, sitting should be some distance form warm processing areas. 3.3. The examples of processing layout A = administration, EA = employee amenities, FPS = final products storage, L = laboratory, P = production area, RMS = raw materials storage (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998 re-draw by the authors) 3.4.1.4. Equipments There are seven basic principles for hygienic design agreed by the Working Party appointed by the Joint Technical Committee of the Food Manufacturers Federation (FMF) and the Food Machinery Association (FMA) in Forshyte and Hayes, (1998). The principle are: all surface in contact with food must be inert to the food under the condition of use and must not migrate; all surfaces in contact with food must be smooth and non-porous so that tiny particles are not caught in microscopic surface crevices and become difficult to dislodge; all surfaces in contact with food must be visible for inspection; all surfaces in contact with food must be readily accessible for manual cleaning; all surfaces in contact with food must be arranged that the equipment is self-emptying or self-draining; equipment must be design as to protect from external contamination; the exterior or non-product contact surfaces should be arranged to prevent harboring of soils, bacteria, or pest in and on the equipment itself as well as in its contact with other equipment, floors, walls or hanging support. With the above principle, materials are commonly used in food processing are Stainless steel, iron and mild steel, copper and its alloys, miscellaneous metal, plastics, rubber, glass and wood, and antimicrobial work surfaces (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). Manufacturing equipment should be designed to prevent the entry of foreign materials, and the development of ‘out-of-sight dead spots, especially within the operation chamber and associated pipe work. Bolts and clips should be attached externally to maintain all internal product contact surfaces smooth and easily cleaned. For operator safety, all equipment should be made safe by electrical isolation during dismantling and cleaning. Table 3.1. Applications of materials-handling equipments Conveyors Elevators Cranes and hoists Trucks Pneumatic equipments Water flumes Direction Vertical up * * * Vertical down * * * Incline up * * * Incline down * * * * Horizontal * * * Frequency Continuous * * * * Intermittent * * Location served Point * * * * Path * * * Limited area Unlimited area * * Height Overhead * * * * Working height * * * * Floor level * * * * Underfloor * * * Materials Packed * * * * Bulk * * * * * * Solid * * * * * * Liquid * * Service Permanent * * * * * Temporary * * From Brenan et al (1976) in Fellow, P.J. (1990) 3.4.2. Operational Requirements 3.4.2.1. Receiving Raw Material Receiving raw materials should be consider some requirements such as the origin of raw materials, species and size based on product, quality of raw material and end-product. a. Indicators of Fish Freshness On the receiving materials area, sensory analysis is the main method of evaluating fish freshness. It enables differences in texture, flavor, and taste to be determined, and subsequently the usefulness of the raw material. Sensory properties change during storage from the desired very high standard, through neutral or average, and finally to undesirable or disgusting. It is generally assumed that prior to disappearance of desirable features the fish is considered to be fresh, while the appearance of undesirable or disgusting features disqualifies the raw material. The most difficult step is to determine an intermediate state in which the fish is not entirely fresh. Sensory analysis is thus carried out on raw fish and cooked fish. Flavor, appearance and state of abdominal cavity (for not eviscerated fish) are the main indicators of quality in the case of raw fish. For cooked fish, smell is the most important indicator (Hall, 1997). In addition, microbiological test on raw material is important parameter. In raw materials not only use sensory test but also use microbiological test. Particularly, on freshness test of tuna for sashimi, commonly use K value methods. K value is one of chemical methods based on ATP degradation. This method is commonly use on Japan to measure fish freshness. According to Anonymous (2002), checking the following at receipt will confirm seafood safety and freshness: product temperature (chilled seafood should be below 5oC but ideally between -1.5o and 2oC; frozen seafood should be below -18oC), package condition and use-by-date of pre-packaged seafood, hygiene and cleanliness of the transport vehicle, a record of the species, harvest date and location, and suppliers name, and visual quality criteria. Even if quickly frozen after catching, frozen seafood will not keep indefinitely. Bacterial activity ceases below about -10oC, but chemical and biochemical changes (enzymes, oil oxidation, and dehydration) will still occur. These changes may bring about slow irreversible changes in odor, flavor, and appearance. For long term freezer storage, it is recommended that a temperature of -30oC is maintained (this may only be achieved by commercial freezers). Seafood stored at -15oC (domestic freezers) will have a much-reduced shelf life. 3.4.2.2. Handling and Processing Fish and shellfish are considered to be among the most perishable foodstuff. To keep fish cool, packing in ice is used; this methods is avoids the possibility of the temperature dropping to low with the concomitant freezing of the flesh of the fish. During fish handling and processing in fisheries processing, it will retard the fish deterioration. Keeping fish I the cool thus extends the high-quality life (HQL) of the fish. Good chilling practices on board the fishing vessels and on shore result in better quality fish which, on landing (Garthwaite, 1997). Chilling delays and minimizes spoilage and the ideal chilling system cools fish rapidly to wet ice temperatures. It is essential to minimize bacterial contamination of the fish during all stages of handling. Dirt should be washed off the fish as landed and the surfaces with which the fish come in contact be maintained in a clean condition. Care must also be taken to wash the fish after gutting it, and to use clean ice. Fish properly iced will cool rapidly and will retain quality for 1 to 2 weeks, depending on the species. Ease handling, reduction of weight loses, and elimination of bruising are advantages to be considered in short-term storage in refrigerated seawater (Shapton and Shapton, 1991). Since shrimp live only a few minutes after removal from their natural habitat, microbial spoilage starts immediately through marine bacteria on the surface and in the digestive system, and through microorganisms which happen to contaminate the shrimp on the ships deck, in handling, and from iced used during their storage. The prevention of deterioration in the quality of fresh and iced-stored shrimp involves not only maintaining low microbial count but also prevention of oxidation (Shapton and Shapton, 1991). Temperature and time conditions at all steps from catching or harvesting to distribution is important to prevent growth of pathogenic bacteria, histamine producing bacteria and spoilage bacteria. Temperature and time also are important in preventing oxidation and chemical spoilage (Huss, 1994). 3.4.2.3. Additives and chemical materials Additives and chemical material commonly use on fish processing. It usually used on fish value added product. 1. Additives Additives can be divided into six major categories: preservatives, nutritional additives, flavoring agents, coloring agents, texturizing agents, and miscellaneous additives (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). a. Preservatives There are basically three types of preservatives used in foods: antimicrobials, antioxidants, and anti-browning agents. The antimicrobials are used to check or prevent the growth of microorganisms. The antioxidants are used to prevent lipid and/or vitamin oxidation in food products. They vary from natural substances such as vitamins C and E to synthetic chemicals such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). The antioxidants are especially useful in preserving dry and frozen foods for an extended period (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). Anti-browning agents are chemicals used to prevent both enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning in food products, especially dried fruits or vegetables. Vitamin C (E300), citric acid (E330), and sodium sul ¬Ã‚ te (E221) are the most commonly used additives in this category (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). b. Chemical preservatives The action of maximum and minimum limit of chemical curing and preservative agents should be safe usage known (Betty and Diane, 1987). Propionic acid, sorbic acid, benzoic acid and shulphur dioxide are effective as a preservative. Propionic acid and its salts are mould inhibitors. Sorbic acid is useful fungistatic agent for use in flour confectionery, marzipan and cheese. Benzoic acid occurs naturally in cranberries and is added to many other foods. It is more effective against moulds and yeast than bacteria. These compound are most effective at the lowest pH values of food and ineffective at neutral pH. In addition, sulphur dioxide is being effective in inhibiting microbial growth, also helps to maintain the color of vegetable that are going to be processed (Betty and Diane, 1987). Nitrates and nitrites are used as a curing for meats. Due to toxicological concerns there has been a tendency to reduce the concentrations used in recent years. This imparts a red coloration to the meat similar to fresh meat (Betty and Diane, 1987). c. Nutritional Additives Nutritional additives have increased in use in recent years as consumers have become more concerned about and interested in nutrition. Vitamins, which as indicated above are also used in some cases as preservatives, are commonly added to cereals and cereal products to restore nutrients lost in processing or to enhance the overall nutritive value of the food. The addition of vitamin D to milk and of B vitamins to bread has been associated with the prevention of major nutritional deficiencies. Vitamin A, from liver cod, is essential for normal vision, growth, cellular differentiation, reproduction, and integrity of the immune system (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). In addition, Carotenoid on food can be functioned as function not only as color and nutrient compounds but also as antioxidants (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). Carotenoid can help to minimize oxidative damage and reduce the risk for age-related disorders by preventing the accumulation of free radicals (Rosalee and Michael, 2008). In addition carotenoid also found on brown algae (Miyashita and Masashi, 2008) Minerals such as iron and iodine have also been of extreme value in preventing nutritional deficiencies. Proteins or proteinaceous materials such as soya protein also are sometimes used as nutritional additives, although they are most commonly used as texturizing agents. Fiber additives have seen increased popularity in recent years with the increase in consumer interest in dietary fiber. Various cellulose, pectin, and starch derivatives have been used for this purpose. d. Coloring Agents Most coloring agents are used to improve the overall attractiveness of the food. A number of natural and synthetic additives are used to color foods. In addition, sodium nitrite is used not only as an antimicrobial, but also to fix the color of meat by interaction with meat pigments (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). There are two kinds of coloring agents natural coloring and synthetic coloring. Natural coloring made from plants and animals (Table 3.4.). Synthetic coloring made from chemical substances (Table 3.5.). e. Flavoring Agents Flavoring agents comprise the greatest number of additives used in foods. There are three major types of flavoring additives: sweeteners, natural and synthetic flavors, and flavor enhancers (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). Table 3.2. Chemical preservatives and their dose that are allowed for using in food processing (Indonesian Ministry of Health Regulation No. 722/Menkes/Per/IX/88) No Chemical Preservatives Kinds of Food Maximum dose 1 Sulphur dioxide Marmalade Tomato paste Sugar Powder Powder dextrose Sugar Vinegar Syrup Wine Grape Sausage Dried coffee extract Gelatin 100 mg/kg 350 mg/kg 20 mg/kg 70 mg/kg 70 mg/kg 70 mg/kg 70 mg/kg 200 mg/kg 450 mg/kg 150 mg/kg 1 g/kg 500 mg/kg 2 Potassium Bisulphate French fries Frozen shrimp Pineapple essence extract 50 mg/kg 10 mg/kg (raw); 30 mg/kg (cooked) 50 mg/kg 3 Potassium Metabisulphate French fries Frozen shrimp 50 mg/kg 100 mg/kg 4 Potassium nitrate Meat Cheese 500 mg/kg 50 mg/kg 5 Potassium nitrite Meat Corned 125 mg/kg 50 mg/kg 6 Potassium sulphate French fries Frozen shrimp Pineapple essence extract 50 mg/kg 100 mg/kg 500 mg/kg 7 Natrium Bisulphate French fries Frozen shrimp Pineapple essence extract 50 mg/kg 100 mg/kg 500 mg/kg 8 Na-metabisulphate French fries Frozen shrimp 50 mg/kg 100 mg/kg 9 Natrium nitrate Meat Cheese 500 mg/kg 50 mg/kg 10 Natrium nitrite Meat Corned 125 mg/kg 50 mg/kg 11 Natrium sulphate French fries Frozen shrimp Pineapple essence extract 50 mg/kg 100 mg/kg 500 mg/kg (Cahyadi, 2006) The most commonly used sweeteners are sucrose, glucose, fructose, and lactose, with sucrose being the most popular. The most common additives used as sweeteners are low-calorie or non-caloric sweeteners such as saccharin and aspartame. In most cases, flavoring agents are the same chemical mixtures that would naturally provide the flavor (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). f. Texturizing Agents These agents are used to add to or modify the overall texture or mouth feel of food products. Phosphates and dough conditioners are other chemicals that play a major role in modifying food texture. Lecithin and mono- and diglycerides as well as several synthetic derivatives. The primary role of these agents is to allow flavors and oils to be dispersed throughout a food product (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). Stabilizers include several natural gums such as carrageenan as well as natural and modified starches. These additives have been used for several years to provide the desired texture in products such as ice cream and are now also finding use in both dry and liquid products. Carrageenan found in red algae (Yuan, 2008). Phosphates are often used to modify the texture of foods containing protein or starch. These chemicals are especially useful in stabilizing various dairy and meat products. The phosphates apparently react with protein and/or starch and modify the water-holding capacity of these natural food components (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). Benefits of Additives There are obviously many recognized benefits to be derived from additives. Some of the major benefits are a safer and more nutritious food supply, a greater choice of food products, and a lower-priced food supply (Branen and Bragerty, 2002). Risks of Additives The indirect risks that have been described for additives are the converse of some of the benefits attributed to their use. Additives have also resulted in the increased availability of food products with a low density of nutrients. Of greater concern than the indirect risks are the potential direct toxicological effects of additives. Cancer and reproductive problems are of primary concern, although there is no direct evidence linking additive consumption with their occurrence in humans. 2. Chemical Substances Some chemical substances use in fish/food processing. They used on processing area and products. These substance have used based on government regulation. If they not used based on it the product will be danger to consumers. Several chemical substances are used on fish processing: Table 3.3. Organic preservatives and their dose that are allowed for using by Indonesian Government (Indonesian Ministry of Health Regulation No. 722/Menkes/Per/IX/88) No Organic Preservatives Kinds of Food Maximum dose 1 Benzoic acid Soy sauce Soft drink Cucumber pickle Margarine Pineapple essence extract Other foods 600 mg/kg 600 mg/kg 1 g/kg 1 g/kg 1 g/kg 1 g/kg 2 Propionic acid Cheese Bread 3 g/kg 2 g/kg 3 Sorbic acid Cheese 3 g/kg 4 Benzoic Potassium Margarine Pineapple essence extract Dried apricot Jam and jelly Syrup, tomato sauce Grape Other food except meat, fish, fowl 1 g/kg 1 g/kg 500 mg/kg 1 g/kg 1 g/kg 200 mg/kg 1 g/kg 5 Propionic potassium Cheese 3 g/kg 6 Sorbic potassium Cheese Raw cheese Margarine Dried apricot Cucumber pickle Jam and jelly Marmalade Pineapple essence extract 3 g/kg 1 g/kg 1 g/kg 500 mg/kg 1 g/kg 1 g/kg 500 mg/kg 1 g/kg 7 Benzoate Potassium Pineapple essence extract 1 g/kg 8 Methyl-p-hydroxyl benzoic Cucumber pickle Liquid coffee extract Tomato paste, essence Other food except meat, fish, fowl 250 mg/kg 450 mg/kg 1 g/kg 1 g/kg 9 Natrium benzoate Jam and jelly Soy sauce Soft drink Other foods 1 g/kg 600 mg/kg 600 mg/kg 1 g/kg 10 Natrium propionic Look at on propionic acid Look at on propionic acid 11 Nisin Cheese 12.5 mg/kg 12 Propil-p-hydroxyl benzoic Look metal-p-hydroxyl benzoic Look metal-p-hydroxyl benzoic Source: Cahyadi, (2006) Table 3. 4. Natural coloring agents characteristic Group Color Sources Solubility Stability Caramel Brown Cooked sugar Water Stable Anthosianine Orange, Red Blue Plants Water Sensitive to heat and pH Flavonoid Without yellow Plants Water Stable to heat Leucoanthocianine Colorless Plants Water Stable to heat Tannin Colorless Plants Water Stable to heat Bataline Yellow, red Plants Water Sensitive to heat Quinon Yellow-black Lichen Water Stable to heat Xanthon Yellow Plants Water Stable to heat Carotenoid Without yellow and red Plants Water Stable to heat Chlorophyll Green, brown Plants Lipid and Water Sensitive to heat Heme Red, brown Animals Water Sensitive to heat Source: Cahyadi (2006) Tabl

Neural Masculization and Feminization :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Neural Masculization and Feminization American society separates two sexes and distinguishes two genders. Through innumerable cues, we are taught that men and women are different. Most public places provide separate restrooms for men and women. Most department stores sell men's and women's clothes in separate departments. Even separate clothing size scales exist for men and women. Many health forms and applications for schools or jobs inquire about sex. Clubs and organizations, such as Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts, exist solely for one gender or the other. When considering questions of sex and gender, each term must be defined. Sex refers to the biological distinction between male and female. Gender is the socially constructed understanding of man and woman. Why are so many distinctions drawn between male and female, man and woman? Are the differences between male and female limited to genitalia, or do the differences extend to behavior? If males and females do indeed act differently, what is the source of this difference? Several studies have indicated that males and females do act differently. One study even reported that men and women college students hold their books in different manners (1). Robert Trivers, an influential evolutionary biologist during the 1970's, suggested that males and females have evolved different patterns of behavior due to various levels of investment in reproduction and child-rearing (2) . According to Trivers' theory, female mammals are more invested in the reproductive process than male mammals because females must contribute a relatively large egg, milk, and blood to create offspring. Males, however, donate a relatively small amount of seamen. Since females must sacrifice more to reproduce, they are more likely to favor producing a smaller quantity of high quality offspring. In contrast, males have relatively little invested in each offspring, so producing a large quantity of offspring is favorable to males. Thus, theoretically, females are more selective of mates than m ales, and males must compete to win mates (2) . Because of this competition, males are thought to be more aggressive than females. Observation of human children has confirmed that young males tend to be more aggressive than young females (3) . In accordance with this pattern, preschool-aged boys are generally more willing to explore than preschool-aged girls, while girls tend to return to their mothers from exploration more frequently than boys (4) . For example, if a room was divided by some sort of barrier, with the mothers on one side and the children on the other, the boy children are more likely to try to find a way around the barrier, and the girl children are more likely to stand in the middle of the barrier and cry (4) .

Jit in Indian Automobile Industry

INTRODUCTION Just In Time: The traditional concepts of Quality and customer satisfaction have been challenged in the recent years. Customer choices and perceptions have also been changing continuously. Japanese manufacturers were the first to meet these challenges by introducing many innovations in manufacturing systems and management, one of which is the philosophy of â€Å"Just in Time†. Just-in-time (JIT) refers to a collection of practices that is designed to eliminate waste and achieve manufacturing excellence. These organizational practices encompass the entire logistics flow of materials from purchasing through production and distribution. The elements of JIT may include shared product design with suppliers and customers, movement toward single sourcing, proximate suppliers and customers, reduced set-up times, preventive maintenance, reliance on analytic tools to identify sources of defects and plant optimization layout (re)configurations, among others Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing systems have attracted the attention of industries all over the world. The perceptible impact of JIT lies in attaining productivity and quality standards. The real challenge before Indian managers is to establish priorities among potential JIT techniques to achieve best possible advantage of JIT implementation in Indian industries.. With the variety of products on offer increasing with customization and evolving customer needs, it is but important that a manufacturing facility embraces the advantages of JIT in making the operations lean and flexible. Indian Automobile Industry: India currently has approximately 40 million vehicles. In February 2009, monthly sales of passenger cars in India exceeded 100,000 units. Current low penetration, rising prosperity and the increasing affordability of private vehicles along with importance to exports offer a healthy prospectus for the Indian automobile industry. (Source: http://www. kpmg. de/docs/Auto_survey. pdf) Several Indian automobile manufacturers such as Tata Motors, Maruti Suzuki and Mahindra and Mahindra, have expanded their domestic and international operations. India's robust economic growth led to the further expansion of its domestic automobile market which attracted significant India-specific investment by multinational automobile manufacturers. Due to strong Global competition Indian companies started focusing on adopting new techniques and technologies which enabled manufactures to improve their processes and products JIT IN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY OF OTHER COUNTRIES Many countries have got leverage by implementing JIT techniques in their respective automobile industries. Peter Turnbul, [1] analyzes the trends in the UK automotive industry during the 1980’s, giving special focus to the adoption of JIT and TQM principles. This includes development from within the organization and relations between suppliers. Also the implications of adopting Japanese techniques on Information systems have also been looked into. It was found out in the study that Japan was way ahead of UK and US in terms of productivity and Quality in the cars manufactured due to successful implementation of JIT and TQM techniques and US and UK companies are gradually bridging this gap. Bo Hou, [2] conducted a research on the benefits and difficulties faced in implementing JIT for an automotive company in China. An international automotive company with factory located in China was taken for the Case study, examining the pre and post JIT implementation experiences. In order to collect data Semi-structured interviews were organized. Most interviewee’s support that proper design of information systems could assist JIT systems. According to the interviews, Kanban is a primary management method in the case company’s JIT model. It was found after the interviews that inventory can be maintained at a reasonably low level. Performance indicators have been employed to examine the achievement of suppliers in quality, on-time delivery etc. , in order to encourage suppliers to participate in the JIT program. JIT IMPLEMENTATION IN INDIA Several Indian companies have initiated JIT implementation into their systems or are claiming to have implemented many key features if JIT. While studying the implementation of JIT in India the following factors have to be considered. 1) Size of the firm ) Indian economy (only opening up in early 1990’s) 3) How MNC’s having manufacturing operations in India are Implementing JIT In a Survey of JIT practices conducted by Mahadevan[3], Questionnaires were sent to 400 companies but only 43 of them responded usefully. Fourteen critical factors were identified and participating organizations were asked whether these factors were important for JIT implementation in their firm s. Quality circles and cellular manufacturing have been rated low while TQM was rated very high. Vikas Kumar [4], explains the interrelationship between the different JIT elements. According to him the elements of JIT important to India are Buffer stock removal, Cellular manufacturing, Kanban and Error prevention Garg D [5] conducts a case study in JIT implementation of an Indian tractor assembly. It started implementing JIT purchasing in the mid 1980s. Initially, the company received discouraging results in almost all the areas for several years. Later on everything was streamlined and management began achieving significant results in terms of reductions in inventory, material movement, space, manpower, work in process and lead time, and an increase in productivity and quality. It can be said that in spite of old machinery, the company is sustaining its competitiveness in the tractor market by applying JIT. Vikas [6] conducted a survey on 34 Indian firms with the aim to find: 1) Those elements of JIT that might be difficult to implement in Indian Industry. These have been found to be Buffer stock removal, Error prevention, Frequent and reliable delivery, Kanban system, Multi functional worker, short lead time, Small lot size, Zero defect etc. ) Reason for slow implementation of JIT in India which have been found to be High cost of implementation, Informal and casual Auditing, Lack of support from suppliers, Lack of training, Lack of understanding of JIT techniques, shortage of multi functional workers Garg D [5] explains that the key steps in JIT implementation were: extensive training of employees on pull concepts; identification of key performance parameters; new layouts based on U-shaped cells ( wherever applicable) ; standardization of operations; a mai ntenance plan for each machine; housekeeping; visual control; and multi-skill training. Vikas Kumar [4], Several Indian industries are implementing the JIT with belief that it would be helpful to face the global competition. Yet, its effectiveness would depend upon qualities, attitudes and values of Indian work force. The paper gives focus to work culture of the organization. Some of the elements of work culture desirable for JIT are flexible workforce, Cross training, long term employment, Job enlargement and Labor unions, Work force involvement etc. Benefits Vikas Kumar [4] identified that the Potential benefits of JIT include reduced setup cost, labor cost, and move distances According to Chandra[7] the major benefits of JIT manufacturing system in ascending order are Reduction in inventory, Quality improvement, Increased productivity, Increased profit margin, Improved competitive position. Vikas Kumar [6] Highlights the most expected benefits of JIT which are Improved equipment utilization, improved quality control, worker efficiency, inventory turnover, flexibility, productivity, Profit margin, Team work, Low scrap rate etc Disadvantages of JIT Some of the disadvantages of JIT as highlighted by Vikas [6] are: * Implementation if JIT does not automatically translate to profits as many direct and indirect costs are involved in JIT implementation. Also JIT requires appropriate fit between manufacturing activities, organizational design, processes etc. * JIT programs need continuous check and control for sustained improvement * The timely of delivery of goods is extremely important which might be difficult to achieve in some parts of India * JIT may demand unrealistic commitment from employees. Managerial powers are extended to the workers JIT IN INDIAN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY With respect to the Indian Automobile Industry JIT purchasing, a few elements of JIT production and JIT Logistics are given focus in this research paper. Purchasing In industries like the automobiles, where the cost of raw material accounts for almost 50-60% of the cost of the final product, Purchasing is a key element to focus for cost reduction [Haritha Saranga (8)]. According to Sultan Singh. 9] Purchasing involves determining the need, selecting the supplier, and arriving at proper price, terms and conditions, issuing the contract or order and to follow-up to ensure proper delivery on time According to Sultan Singh, Dixit Garg. [10] The traditional approach to purchasing is at the root of many problems that business faces today. High inventory levels, soaring costs, adverse relationships with suppliers and quality issues which either stop production or results in poor products are just a few of the pr oblems with the current way of purchasing JIT Purchasing Sultan Singh. [9] has found that Just-in –Time Purchasing has received an increasing amount of attention throughout the world due to its potential for quality improvement and cost saving. Jocclyn Drolet. [10] found that many studies indicate that the JIT purchasing function is of paramount importance for successful JIT implementation According to Sultan Singh, Dixit Garg. [10] The four basic principles of JIT purchasing are: * Elimination of waste * Employees involvement in decision making * Supplier participation Total quality control Sultan Singh. [9] Found that JIT purchasing has been implemented in many industries of several countries such as United States, United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, and Korea etc. Today many reputed Indian industries have also switched to the Japanese JIT Purchasing concept to improve their product quality and productivity. In traditional purchasing importance is given mainly to the price of the product. Supplier relationship building, quality, deliv ery time, supplier satisfaction etc are in the back seat. Sultan Singh. 9] States that Japanese JIT Purchasing is an uninterrupted flow of 100% acceptable materials delivered on due dates and time at optimal cost 100% of time. In JIT purchasing environment purchasing is carried out in small lots with frequent deliveries in small standard containers used to hold exact quantity and to the required specifications from a nearby local single supplier with a long-term contract. The company relies more on performance specifications Consistent quality and delivery performance is most important parameters in the supplier evaluation while price is an important one. This area includes supplier’s management, inspection of incoming raw materials/ semi finished / maintenance components etc. The expectations of the buying firm in JIT Purchasing Dixit Garg [5] conducted a survey to identify the important attributes of JIT Purchasing with respect to the Indian Context. The importance of JIT purchasing attributes in a decreasing order as were High Quality, Mutual trust and Co-operation, Reliable delivery, Exact quantity and Increased customer support. Jocclyn Drolet. 11] Stated that the most frequently mentioned benefits are the reduction in lead times, the decrease in inventory levels, waste elimination, and improved quality of incoming parts, raw materials and the delivery process. In fact, these four benefits have been so widely cited in analytical studies, and cross validated in empirical studies, that we believe that they may no longer belong to the domain of hypothetical benefits but must be taken as factual benefits. Sultan Singh, Dixit G arg. [2] States that in JIT Purchasing no percentage of rejects from supplier is acceptable. The supplier is also encouraged to be more innovative. Jocclyn Drolet. [11] Stated that some of the success factors of JIT purchasing are JIT supplying Partnership, Restructuring supplier network, Quality of purchased products, Long term and exclusive agreement with suppliers, Proximity etc. He emphasizes that partnership is a catalyst for other JIT purchasing success factors Problems encountered in JIT purchasing implementation in India Sultan Singh. [9] Found that most serious problems, however, are not operational in nature. They are â€Å"people problems†- stemming from attitude and orientation, past experience and practices, and the passive factors of interpersonal relations. The suppliers may not fully support JIT purchasing program because of following reasons: * Lack of incentives for suppliers to adopt JIT delivery. * Lack of commitment from buyers. * Considerable strain on suppliers on JIT delivery. Sultan Singh. [9] Has found Evidences which shown that JIT purchasing can be beneficial in Indian context. The supplier is encouraged to be more innovative. He is given â€Å"loose specifications â€Å". The company relies more on performance specifications than on product design. Counting and receiving inspection of incoming parts is eliminated. Formal paper work is reduced to minimum delivery schedule or quantity can be changed by simple telephone calls/fax/telex message. Supplier is evaluated by consistence in quality, delivery performance and price. It can be concluded that JIT Purchasing is a key element for the successful implementation of JIT. The benefits of JIT purchasing can be summarized as reduction in lead time and inventory levels, improved quality of raw materials and better delivery process. Also there are increased supplier participation and employee involvements. Many companies in different countries have successfully implemented JIT purchasing. Some of the problems which Indian companies encountered were Lack of support from suppliers, Lack of support and commitment from Top management, Low product Quality, Employees resistance to change and Lack of communication. Maruti is focusing on Supplier development and sharing its quality and manufacturing practices with them. Mahindra and Mahindra is now working to minimize supply constraints through advanced capacity planning, long term contract with suppliers and capacity enhancement. JIT Production According to Vikas[4], The major elements of JIT production in Indian context include Buffer stock removal, Cellular manufacturing, Kanban, Error prevention and others. In this research paper the attributes taken for study are Cellular Manufacturing and Kanban. Cellular Manufacturing Mahadevan [12] infers that there has been an increasing demand for more variety in the recent years thereby pushing volumes down. It is estimated that 70 % of manufacturing industries will have mid-volume, mid-variety scenario. Cellular manufacturing provides a solution for the mentioned situation. According to Frost ; Sullivan [13] Cellular manufacturing is based on the Group Technology concept and involves the use of work cells. A Work Cell is a group of equipment and workstations arranged in the logical sequence of production, which can produce a product (or part of a product). To successfully maintain One-piece flow in manufacturing cells companies employ quick change over techniques The key factors that affect the design of an efficient cell can be grouped broadly as the number of process required, number of products that fit into the cell, market segments/requirement, and degree of automation. Mahadevan [12] mentions the benefits of Cellular Manufacturing as: * Production planning and control become easier as it is similar to breaking the Manufacturing process into smaller units which are independent and more manageable. * Material handling and traceability becomes easier as materials seldom go outside the respective cells for processing. Work enrichment: Employees would be in a position to better relate to the workplace and make improvements The benefits as mentioned by Frost ; Sullivan[13] are: improved resource [both man and machine] utilization reduced lead times, improved product quality, better space utilization, lesser blocked capital in inventory, and an overall improved work space. Timothy[14] identifies the disadvantages of cellular manufacturing as: * Increased capital expenditure * Decreased machine utilization * A breakdown can cause work stoppage in cell Shishir Bhat [15] analyses the impact of cellular manufacturing in a Gear manufacturing Machine shop. The evaluation was done based on two outputs, throughput and flow time. It was found that the average monthly throughput [order completed in a month]for Main Gears before implementation of Cellular Manufacturing was 59. 5 and that after implementation was 90. 5. Also the average flow time [man hours a product spends on shop floor ] for main gears reduced from 58 to 30. The paper shows that when a job shop manufactures a group of products with similar characteristics and stable demand, Cellular Manufacturing is an effective way for performance improvements. Kanban Kanban is a system of continuous supply of components, parts and supplies, such that workers have what they need, where they need it, when they need it. Kanban facilitates elimination of waste and is one of the most powerful tools of the â€Å"Toyota Production System†. Kanban is designed for quick response to actual consumption and ensures material availability at all times even in the face of temporary demand swings. Improved material availability helps achieve agility and flexibility in production. Kanban Systems are usually custom designed for each client and each item. A good design takes cognizance of all relevant factors such as consumption level, lead time, transit time, optimum shipping lot, and desired delivery frequency. It can be quickly adjusted in response to seasonality of demand. Inventory reduction is regarded as one of the key strategic levers to improve productivity and profitability of the firm in theory and practice (Lieberman and Demeester 1999, Chen et al, 2005). Kanban which facilitates visual control was originally designed for manual operation. This encourages employee involvement at all levels. However it can be integrated with any ERP system. Many tasks can then be automated, thus increasing the speed of material flow and accuracy of transactions. B. Vijaya Ramnath,C. Elanchezhian and R. Kesavan [16] wrote a paper which deals with implementation of lean manufacturing in Engine valve machining cell in a leading auto components manufacturing industry in the South India. The main objective of the paper was to present an overview of manufacturing wastes and introduce the tools and techniques that are used to transform a company into a high performing lean enterprise. Value stream mapping was a main tool used to identify the opportunities for various lean techniques. One of the methods used for reduction of waste was the Kanban system. A Kanban job Flow is arrived at which is used for building the future state of Value stream mapping. The elimination and or reducing of wastes is by making the process improvements in the current manufacturing line by adopting some lean tools like JIT, set up time reduction, WIP reduction etc. JIT Logistics Today Indian Automobile players seek to increase their global footprint and supply chain for many of these companies extends across several countries. Hence Logistics is a key area Indian Automobile companies are focusing on. According to Kee-hung Lai. [17] Just-in-Time (JIT) which has been effective in manufacturing operations can also contribute to cost and service advantages in Logistics. However, the potential of JIT has not been widely recognized in logistics. Kee-hung Lai. [17] has identified the major areas in Logistics in which JIT can be applied such as 1) Transportation management 2) order processing 3) Inventory management 4) Customer service, and a number of supporting lements including materials handling, packaging, purchasing and warehousing. 1) Transport Management: Typically materials were ordered in large lot shipments to obtain economies of scale. Similarly full truckloads or railcars were more efficient. For less than full truckloads loads of different companies having similar destinations were combined. Ken alternburg. [18] States that In JIT Transport all the three parties i. e. the supplier, the carrier and th e customer work more closely with one another. One option is formation of Transport partnerships just like supplier partnerships. The carriers would be single source for a family of businesses that will treat these carriers as in-house carriers. In some JIT Environments the parts manufacturing facility is constructed at or near the final assembly plant, allowing small deliveries of parts to be made with greater control over timeliness. Ken alternburg. [18] Suggests that where local manufacturing is not feasible, closed loop transportation is employed in which delivery trucks make stops at various suppliers on a predetermined schedule. Disposable packaging can be replaced with reusable containers and racking compatible with assembly line use, eliminating the costs of removing and disposing of packaging materials and simplifying and speeding the loading and unloading processes Materials can be unloaded at or near final point of use in JIT System as inspection is eliminated. Costs associated with equipment used to speed the delivery process, such as specially configured trucks, containerization, and unloading equipment, are offset by improvements in efficiency as implied by Ken alternburg. [18] Ken alternburg. [18] States that JIT environment has affected transportation providers, requiring them to change and streamline their methods of operation, and make long-term investments in technology, 2) Order Processing: According to Kee-hung Lai. [17] JIT adopts technologies such as Logistical Information System [LIS], often in the form of Electronic Data Interchange [EDI], Internet, Value Added Network etc so that different parties in the logistics processes can gain access to the needed information for decision making 3) Customer service: Kee-hung Lai. 17] states that In JIT logistics, all the activities that take up motion time, for example, order picking, shipment arranging, transporting and so on, need to be managed efficiently. The aim is to meet customer service requirements at the lowest possible cost KPMG conducted a survey on the Indian Automotive supply chain to analyze the key challenges faced by different sections of the Industry, identify the areas that need attentio n and also identify opportunities. A primary survey was done among the heads of supply chain of some major Indian Auto companies. KPMG [19]) The participants of the survey identified the following as the key challenges in order of priority: Integrating the end-to-end supply chain and managing it as a single integrated entity: While past efforts of OEMs have been focused on streamlining and improving different areas of the supply chain independently, through efforts in dealer management, operations planning, vendor rationalization, IT package implementation etc, it is expected that the linking up of these activities is expected to provide significant benefits to players Managing Inbound Logistics/JIT Supplies: is a key concern which faces challenges related to reliability of data, lead time and absence of quality logistics players on the upstream side. Respondents felt that as OEM and Auto component players become more global in nature it would have a significant impact on automotive supply chain. Managing costs: Cost, Quality and Timely delivery continue to become the key concern area for players. Many OEM’s have implemented JIT inbound logistics which is not by increased visibility across the supply chain and improved planning, it has only resulted in the burden of inventory getting shifted from OEMs to their Tier-I vendors. The Key initiatives taken up by the companies to address these challenges according to KPMG [19]) are: Increased Investment in IT and processes: Implement Integrated IT systems [such as ERP], but survey revealed that they were not able to leverage on such systems as their business process were not streamlined or aligned with the needs of the IT System. Vendor/Dealer rationalization: Many respondents agreed that Indian Industry has not evolved into fully tierized structure where Tier-I vendors take on responsibility for modules / sub-assemblies Outsourcing to logistics service providers: Outsource key activities along the supply chain to logistics players, in an effort to reduce costs and increase focus on their customers and core activities. Most OEMs and large Tier-I suppliers have already outsourced their outbound logistics activities. These activities include carrying out ‘milk runs’ to collect and deliver parts to OEMs on a daily basis, transferring materials across hubs and warehousing/inventory management. Key logistics players have started maintaining warehouses in close proximity to OEMs’ plants, and supplying materials on a JIT basis. Related services being provided by large third party logistics service providers (3PLs) include consolidation of materials, packaging, incoming inspection, cleaning, etc (KPMG [19]) JIT at Maruti Udyog Limited: Maruti was the first Indian company where Japanese Manufacturing culture was implemented from top to bottom. At the Maruti factory in Gurgaon the eight typical wastages at each operational point (over-production, man movement, material movement, idle time of  operator,  work-in-process, machine  availability,  waiting  time and  needless  processing) had been measured by observation and even videos. The bottlenecks have been identified and a lot of work has been done to streamline the process. In 1995, when Maruti had 4,800employees, it was producing at the rate of 730 cars a day. Later with 4,500 employees, the plant was producing at the rate of 1,700 cars a day. Simultaneously, the supply chain system is being modified. A delivery instruction system places orders with the vendors for the next day's production target. Maruti is now working with an inventory of four hours maximum for local items and six days average for imported materials. The inventory to sales turnover ratio, on the scale of 100 in 1999-2000, is now down to 41. Maruti has also started working with its vendors  to reduce their cost of  production so that its own cost can be reduced. It has also launched a quality enhancement scheme, called the Quality Gate system. Maruti has implemented JIT for some of its major suppliers. Some others are in the process of doing so. There is a stress on quality in this highly competitive industry. The bargaining power of suppliers of some components is high, because of capacity constraints. This makes them accept only large orders, and therefore makes it difficult for assemblers to implement JIT CONCLUSION With India emerging as one of the important markets for Automobiles it is imperative for Automobile manufactures to gain production and cost efficiency. JIT would help the companies in achieving this end. The Japanese had perfected the implementation of JIT. Based on research material available it can be concluded that JIT has been successfully implemented in Automobile companies of many other countries such as United States, United Kingdom, China to name a few. Indian Manufacturing environment has huge prospects of advancement through JIT. Some of the key aspects of JIT important for the Indian industry are Total Quality management [TQM], Cellular Manufacturing, Kanban, Error Prevention to name a few. Some of the reasons for slow implementation of JIT in India can be concluded as High cost of implementation, Lack of support from suppliers, Lack of understanding or conviction in JIT techniques leading to non effective implementation. Also work culture plays a crucial role for JIT. JIT would require a work force that is flexible, can engage in cross training, and would be committed to their work on providing long term employment prospects. The Major benefits identified by the implementation of JIT are Improved Quality, reduction in inventory, increased productivity and flexibility. There is enough evidence to prove that Indian companies who have implemented JIT [at least partly] successfully have reaped the benefits. The Case study of Tractor assembly factory and Maruti are testimony for the same. Also Mahindra and Mahindra had implemented JIT techniques during the 1990’s to their advantage. To gain the benefit of JIT, Indian Automobile Industry must be willing to modify their procedures and processes References: 1) Peter Turnbul, Nick Oliver, Barry Wilkinson (1989), â€Å"Recent Developments in the UK Automotive Industry: JIT/TQC and Information systems†, Technology and Strategic Management, Vol 1 No. 2, pp. 09 2) Bo Hou, Hing Kai Chan, and Xiaojun Wang (2011), â€Å"A Case study of Just-In-Time System in the Chinese Automotive Industry†, Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering, Vol I 3) B Mahadevan, (1997),â€Å"Are Indian Companies ready for Just In Time†, Manage Rev, July-September, pp. 85-92 4) Vikas Kumar, (2010), â€Å"JIT Based Quality Management: Concepts and Implications in Indian Context†, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 2(1), 2010,pp. 40-50 5) Dixit Garg, S. G. Deshmukh (1999), JIT Purchasing: Literature review and implications for Indian Industry, Production Planning and Control, Vol 10 , No 3, pp. 276-285 6) Vikas Kumar, Dixit garg, N P Mehta(2004), â€Å"JIT Practices in Indian Context: A survey†, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, Vol 63 ,pp. 55-662 7) Chandra, Kodali (1997),†Implementation if JIT manufacturing System: An Overview†, Productivity, Vol 38, pp. 312-321 8) Haritha Saranga, Arnab Mukherji & Janat Shah, â€Å"Determinants of Inventory Trends in the Indian Automotive Industry: An Empirical Study†, Indian Institute of Management Bangalore, India 9) Sultan Sin gh, Dixit Garg (2011),† Comparative analysis of Japanese Just-in-Time Purchasing and Traditional Indian Purchasing System†, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST), vol. 3, no. 3 10) Sultan Singh, Dixit Garg ,† Attributes in JIT Purchasing†, Akgec Journal Of Technology, vol. 2, no. 11) Jocclyn Drolet, Rene Gelinas, Real Jacob (1996),† Just-in-Time purchasing and the partnership strategy†, European Journal of Purchasing & Supply Management , vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 39-45 12) B. Mahadevan (2010),† Operations Management : Theory and Practice† 13) Frost & Sullivan , (2010), â€Å"Cellular Manufacturing makes Plant Operations Lean and Flexible†, http://www. frost. com/prod/servlet/press-release. pag? docid=202718293 14) Timothy J. Greene , Randall P. Sadowski ,† A review of cellular manufacturing assumptions, advantages and design techniques† 15) Shishir Bhat, (2008), â€Å"Cellular manufacturing-t he heart of Lean manufacturing†, Advances in Production Engineering and Management, Vol 3 , No 4 16) B. Vijaya Ramnath,C. Elanchezhian and R. Kesavan, (2010) Application of kanban system for implementing lean manufacturing (a case study), Journal of Engineering Research and Studies, Vol. I/Issue I/July-Sept. 17) Kee-hung Lai and T. C. E. Cheng , â€Å"Just-in-Time Logistics† 18) Ken alternburg, Debbie griscom, Jack hart, Frank smith, Gary wohler [1999],† Just-in-time logistics support for the Automobile industry†, Production and inventory management journal—second quarter 19) KPMG (2006), â€Å"Indian Automotive Supply Chain KPMG† 20) http://amitsinghbisht. articlesbase. com/marketing-articles/maruti-udyog-limited-managing-competition-successfully-723310. html

Global Virtual Engineering Team Definition Essays

Global Virtual Engineering Team Definition Essays Global Virtual Engineering Team Definition Essay Global Virtual Engineering Team Definition Essay This chapter describes old research related to assorted subjects that influence the effectual usage of planetary technology work force by organisations. Review of the literature from academe and industry was performed. The CII PT 170 research undertaking on practical squads ( Chinowsky and Rojas 2002 ) examined the intent and success factors for utilizing practical squads on undertakings. This research helped specify some of the basic parametric quantities and besides some specific recommendations for practical squads which will be described in the undermentioned subdivisions. Another related research undertaking is from the Center for Integrated Facility Engineering ( CIFE ) , Stanford University that discusses patterning and supervising trust in practical AEC squads ( Zolin et al. 2000 ) . Trust development in practical squads nowadayss important challenges because it is hard to measure teammates trustiness without of all time holding met them ( McDonough e t al. 2001 ) . Much literature related to GVETs is framed within the offshore outsourcing construct. Therefore, background literature on offshore outsourcing of technology work including the drive forces, practical squad definition, pay difference, future tendencies, pros and cons is presented. Global practical technology squad constructions related to engineering ; direction ; organisation ; undertaking control ; and squad communicating are besides described. 3.1. Technology Servicess : A better perceptual experience of technology squads requires an apprehension of the definition of technology. The International Technology Education Association ( 2004 ) defines technology as affecting the cognition of the mathematical and natural scientific disciplines ( biological and physical ) gained by survey, experience, and pattern that are applied with judgement and creativeness to develop ways to use the stuffs and forces of nature for the benefit of world. Engineering work is seen as an iterative procedure of design and analysis. There are many stages-planning, design, fabrication or building, and so operation ( see Figure 2 ) . Each measure requires the accomplishments and expertness of an applied scientist in different ways. The concluding measure may necessitate an applied scientist to run, learn the operation, or sell a merchandise ( Simpson 2004 ) . Design work could be performed by a foreign applied scientist and so the design could be tested onsite, manufactured offshore, or sent back to the U.S. for proving, extra design work, or fabrication. Or the merchandise or procedure could be designed wholly in the U.S. and the design sent abroad to be manufactured and the manufactured merchandise be returned to the U.S. ( Simpson 2004 ) . 3.2. Global Virtual Engineering Team Definition A definition from literature reappraisal and undertaking squad input was developed. Bell and Kozlowski ( 2002 ) started to specify squads with the chief features that differentiate practical squads from conventional squad ( see Figure 3 ) . The most critical and of import characteristic of practical squads is that they cross boundaries of infinite ( Bell and Kozlowski 2002 ) . Whereas the members of traditional squads work in close propinquity to one another, the members of practical squads are separated, frequently by many stat mis or even continents ( Townsend et al. 1996 ) . Although many traditional, localised squads besides communicate through computerized communicating media, engineering such as picture conferencing is typically used by practical squad members to supplement their rare face-to-face communicating ( Bell and Kozlowski 2002 ) . In physically collocated squads, members of the squad are likely to hold similar and complementary cultural and educational backgrounds since they have gone through the same enlisting and choice processs as they are employed by the same organisation ( Pawar 2000 ) . In a practical squad the members may change in their instruction, civilization, linguistic communication, clip or ientation and expertness. There can besides be conflicting organisational and personal ends among the members of a practical squad ( Pawar 2000 ) . When finding whether a practical squad is entrained by existent clip or is distributed across clip ( see Figure 4 ) , it is of import to see the engineering the squad employs ( Bell and Kozlowski 2002 ) . Certain signifiers of synchronal communicating engineerings, such as videoconferencing, allow practical squads to interact in existent clip even though great distances and clip zones separate squad members. Whereas other asynchronous signifiers of communicating engineering, such as electronic mail, consequence in greater temporal distribution, even when squad members are collocated in clip ( Bell and Kozlowski 2002 ) . Virtual squads frequently cross functional, organisational, and/or cultural boundaries. However, the grade to which these boundaries, one time crossed, are permeable is expected to depend on the nature of the undertakings the squad performs. Similarly, the lifecycles of practical squads are mostly determined by the nature of undertakings these squads perform. When the undertakings a practical squad performs are complex and challenging, the squad is expected to more likely maintain a stable squad rank and develop a more uninterrupted lifecycle. When undertakings are less complex nevertheless, a practical squad is expected to be able to work efficaciously with a dynamic squad rank and a more distinct lifecycle ( Bell and Kozlowski 2002 ) . The demand to develop coherence and coaction among team members is minimum and the grade of acquaintance among team members is frequently non critical ( Bell and Kozlowski 2002 ) . As the undertakings a practical squad is required to execute go more complex and challenging, necessitating greater degrees of expertness and specialisation, a higher premium is expected to be placed on synchronal workflow agreements and the functions of single squad members will be more likely to be clearly defined, fixed, and remarkable ( Bell and Kozlowski 2002 ) . Under conditions of low undertaking complexness, nevertheless, ther e is minimum mutuality among team members and more asynchronous workflow agreements are expected to be adopted. In these state of affairss, practical squad members can keep multiple functions without compromising the effectives of the squad ( Bell and Kozlowski 2002 ) . Townsend et Al. ( 1998 ) defined practical squads as groups of geographically and/or organizationally spread coworkers that are assembled utilizing a combination of telecommunications and information engineerings to carry through an organisational undertaking. Morris et Al. ( 2002 ) defined a practical organisation as an organisation constructed of concerted relationships supported by information engineering to get the better of limitations of clip and/or location to run into specific aims. They further defined practical squads as the application of the practical organisation construction at the workgroup degree to make impermanent squads that may traverse functional and organisational boundaries for the completion of a specific undertaking. Jarvenpaa and Leidner ( 1999 ) defined a practical squad as an evolutionary signifier of a web organisation enabled by progresss in information and communicating engineering. Steinfield et Al. ( 2001 ) defined practical squads as squads in which interaction and coaction takes topographic point among geographically-distributed and frequently culturally-disparate persons. Kristof et Al. ( 1995 ) defined practical squads as self-managed cognition work squads with distributed expertness that is fluid in footings of rank, leading, and boundaries ( functional, organisational, and geographical ) . Kristof et Al. ( 1995 ) besides defined a planetary VT as a impermanent, culturally diverse, geographically dispersed, electronically pass oning work group. From most of the definitions found, the nucleus facets of all definitions were similar. Another really simple definition by Prasad and Akhilesh ( 2002 ) defined a planetary practical squad as a squad with distributed expertness and that spans across boundaries of clip, geographics, nationality and civilization. Stough et Al. ( 2000 ) defined the virtual/global/networked squad as a new manner of forming planetary work forces to tackle an information age chance for mobilising concealed work force through the usage of the computer-mediated communicating engineerings to get the better of the barriers created by geographical distance and time. aˆÂ ¦ . The practical squad consists of a group of people who collaborate closely even though they are separated by infinite ( including national boundaries ) , clip, and organisational barriers. Montoya-Weiss et Al. ( 2001 ) defined a planetary practical squad as a group of geographically and temporally spread persons who are assembled via engineering to carry through an organisation undertaking. Chinowsky and Rojas ( 2002 ) defined a practical squad as a group of people with complementary competences put to deathing coincident, collaborative work processes through electronic media without respect to geographic location. Global practical squads are groups that are identified by their organisations ( s ) and members as a squad ; are responsible for doing and/or implementing determinations of import to the organisation s planetary scheme ; utilize technology-supported communicating well more than face-to-face communicating ; and work and unrecorded in different states ( Manzevski and Chudoba 2000 ) . From these definitions combined with feedback from the PT211 squad, the undermentioned definition was adopted for this survey: A Global Virtual Engineering Team ( GVET ) is a group of geographically dispersed persons organized through communicating and information engineerings that need to get the better of infinite, clip, functional, organisational, national, and cultural barriers for the completion of a specific technology undertaking. 3.3. Global Offshore Outsourcing The nomenclature used to depict the exportation of occupations varies widely. Outsourcing is the generic term used when companies contract out certain concern maps to an external provider, extinguishing the demand to keep an internal staff necessary to execute that map. Offshore outsourcing is the catching of these concern maps to companies in lower-cost, chiefly developing states ( Lieberman 2004 ) .Offshoring is used to depict transnational corporations relocating work from their domestic sites to foreign locations. Last, on-site offshoring occurs when foreign companies bring low cost labour utilizing guest worker visas such as H-1B ( forte businesss ) and L1 ( intra-company transportations ) to execute work in the U.S. ( Hira 2003 ) . More houses and proprietors are directing design work to low cost centres around the universe. But the argument grows over quality, security, and nationalism ( Rubin et al. 2004 ) . Does offshore outsourcing hurt the U.S. economic system by run outing off occupations and investing, or does it finally make the U.S. stronger? Is it a cost-cutting maneuver that should be encouraged, or should it be punished in some manner? These are the issues that require extra analysis. Through a literature reappraisal, this subdivision aims to show both point of views on offshore outsourcing. Figure 5 illustrate some of the outsourcing tendencies for the last few old ages. Datas obtained from the Bureau of Labor Statistics shows that for the old ages between 1999 and 2003, Computer / Mathematical and Architecture / Engineering businesss are said to be the most wedged by outsourcing. For illustration, Fluor Corporation employs 1000s of applied scientists and draughtsmans who work on architectural designs and designs in the Philippines, Poland, and India ( Lieberman 2004 ) . Table 1 includes estimations of the Numberss and types of white-collar occupations likely to be offshore outsourced in the old ages instantly in front. 3.3.1. Driving Forces There are many possible drivers for EPC companies to follow planetary practical technology squad schemes for put to deathing undertakings. They could include invention, higher labour productiveness, more gross from abroad work, fight, lower rewards, ability to work 24 hr agendas, speed-to-market, and handiness of specific proficient accomplishments. Intense planetary competition in an environment of slower growing and low rising prices demands changeless watchfulness over costs ( Global Insight ( USA ) 2004 ) . The reluctance of many workers to relocate for a new occupation, the planetary nature of the market place, the demand to finish undertakings every bit rapidly as possible, and the demand to tap the best brains no affair where they may be are all illustrations of practical squad drivers within and across organisations ( Pare and Dube 1999 ) . The demand to appreciate, promote, and value diverseness will be portion of the day-to-day modus operandi of making concern around the Ea rth ( Noto 1994 ) . Trade liberalisations in developing states and the development of critical substructure in developing states acted as a accelerator to offshore outsourcing. The cyberspace has played the largest function in information exchange. Instantaneous telecommunications capacity and low-cost high velocity computing machines have enabled digital paperss and work to be exchanged outright. Large CAD drawings can be sent through electronic mail. Increased phone lines made it possible to keep teleconferencings with persons around the Earth ( Simpson 2004 ) . Some of the drivers identified from literature reappraisal will be described in the undermentioned subdivisions. 3.3.1.1. Driven by the Need to Reduce Engineering Service Cost Corporations are progressively cognizant of the handiness of big measures of good educated, motivated, and more low-cost labour in foreign states. Due to the excess of labour and the low cost of life in developing states, the labour cost nest eggs can be every bit high as 90 % ( Lieberman 2004 ) . Figure 6 shows that some states technology rewards are equal to merely a one-fourth of a typical US applied scientist s wage. While the wages are significantly different, the nest eggs are non every bit high due to extra costs including the installing of substructure, engaging procedures, directing employees abroad to oversee the installing, and negative reactions from the consumer ( Hira 2004 ) . 3.3.1.2. Driven by the Changing Education / Demographics Job market drives the educational constituent. Employee instruction must be carefully considered. Education is decidedly a critical point to a state s economic system. If the occupation market for applied scientists is worsening when compared to that of other countries of expertness, for illustration concern, jurisprudence or medical specialty ; so the displacement in involvements of all the prospective applied scientists are inevitable. Lower rewards do non stand for the merely competitory menace posed by developing states, nevertheless. U.S. and Germany in peculiar perform ill against many offshore locations when it comes to mathematical, scientific and reading accomplishments ( Esterl 2004 ) . The international concern consultancy cited India as a premier illustration. In add-on to a immature, inexpensive and abundant work force, it noted the South Asiatic state besides excels in instruction, bring forthing two million adept English-speaking alumnuss with strong proficient and quantitative accomplishments each twelvemonth ( Esterl 2004 ) . Figure 7 shows the one-year figure of technology undergraduate grades granted in different states. Table 2 compares recent additions in the Numberss of natural scientific discipline and technology grades awarded in states to which white-collar occupations are being outsourced with similar statistics for the United States. The downward force per unit area on occupation chances, rewards and working conditions that will happen as more and more scientific and technology occupations are shifted to lower cost offshore locations is likely to cut down the willingness of America s best and brightest immature people to prosecute callings in scientific discipline and technology ( Hira 2003 ) . Table 2 compares recent additions in the Numberss of natural scientific discipline and technology grades awarded in states to which white-collar occupations are being outsourced with similar statistics for the United States. The downward force per unit area on occupation chances, rewards and working conditions that will happen as more and more scientific and technology occupations are shifted to lower cost offshore locations is likely to cut down the willingness of America s best and brightest immature people to prosecute callings in scientific discipline and technology ( Hira 2003 ) . 3.3.1.3. Driven by Developments in Technology The increasing technological capableness in developing states is one of the most of import events that is driving planetary companies to recognize the possibility of seaward outsourcing of technology services. This stems from authorities enterprises and lower cost computing machine hardware. Global handiness of cost effectual, high velocity digital cyberspace connexions, combined with cyberspace based and other communications tools such as electronic mail, instant messaging, facsimiles, videoconferences, and cellular phones have empowered foreign workers to supply services that do non needfully necessitate direct physical contact. For illustration, telecom capacity between India or China and the United States grew from 0 to 11,000 Gb/S between 1999 and 2001, while bandwidth pricing is about nil ( Manufacturing A ; Technology News 2003 ) . Meanwhile, the cost of a one minute phone call from India to America has dropped by more than 80 % since January 2000 ( The Economist 2003 ) . Imp roved bandwidth connexions enable thes haring and reassigning of big informations files on a existent clip footing. 3.3.1.4. Driven by the Availability of Engineers The most of import economic and strategic drivers behind planetary outsourcing is the handiness of significant Numberss of skilled professionals in other states who are willing and able to work for much less than their opposite numbers in the United States ( Hira 2003 ) . A lower pay graduated table is even more attractive if it comes with a good educated labour force. While U.S. instruction in math and scientific disciplines is gnawing, the measure and quality of labour abroad from which corporations can take is intensifying. For illustration, with 195,364 technology alumnuss in 1999, China graduated three times as many applied scientists as the United States. Furthermore, the technology graduates represented 44.3 % of all undergraduate grades earned in China. In comparing, technology alumnuss accounted for merely 5.1 % of all undergraduate grades in the U.S. ( NSF 2002 ) . The figure of US alumnuss in technology and physical scientific disciplines is dropping 1 % per twelvemonth ( Manufacturing and Technology News 2003 ) . At this rate China is already bring forthing a far larger educated endowment pool capable of making and contriving. As planetary competition for proficient endowment intensifies and the figure of U.S. born scientific discipline and technology alumnuss continues to worsen, the United States will hold a hard clip run intoing its accomplishment demands. A McKinsey Global Institute survey cites an interesting statistic about the aging U.S. population and the impact on offshoring ( Lieberman 2004 ) . To keep the same portion of working age population to entire population that existed in 2001, 15.6 million extra workers will be required by 2015. Keeping U.S. life criterions, the survey argues, will necessitate more invention, even-greater productiveness additions ( including offshoring to states with more workers ) , or increased in-migration into the United States. Offshoring is seen by many companies as an easier option to see ( Agrawal et al. 2003 ) . The Information Technology Association of America predicts the skilled worker spread to make 14 million by 2020, as Baby Boomers retire and smaller Numberss of cognition workers enter the U.S. work force ( Miller 2003 ) . 3.3.1.5. Driven by the Need to Re-allocate Saved Capital to Higher Value Purposes If we do non look closely at our state s invention hereafter, we may endure in an international economic system driven by engineering, instruction, competition, and market entree in other states ( Lieberman 2004 ) . This driver allows a company to concentrate more on their nucleus competences and free their available resources for higher value intents, thereby keeping their leading in that peculiar sector. Capital can be saved through offshoring some of the less value added work, e.g. , elaborate design to other states. Fring up resources for more critical work by deploying important internal staff on more strategic undertakings is a impulsive factor for some endeavors. 3.3.1.6. Driven by Global Customers or Local Customers Proximity to clients is frequently indispensable to vie for service sector concern. Many concern leaders are attracted to the sensed market possibilities in quickly developing states such as China and India, with over 2.4 billion people between them. For illustration entree and propinquity to big markets with a combined population of 2.4 billion people, China and India are immense possible markets for U.S. merchandises and services. By traveling offshore, corporations can derive regulative blessing, perform market research, and custom-make their merchandises and services consequently in a timely mode ( Lieberman 2004 ) . 3.3.1.7. Driven by the Need to Reduce the Engineering Agenda Another ground for transnational corporations to turn up their services and Research and Development ( R A ; D ) activities in foreign states is the competitory advantage gained by more efficaciously working around the clock by utilizing employees in different clip zones ( Lieberman 2004 ) . Time zones let corporations to execute design and research work 24 hours a twenty-four hours, 7 yearss a hebdomad while leting employees to work during their typical work clip in different states. Productivity grows as the work is performed in a regular work twenty-four hours, without the demand for overtime wage or displacement work. 3.3.1.8. Driven by Country, Client, or Funding Beginning Requirements By implementing concern friendly policies such as less onerous revenue enhancement, ordinance, and judicial proceeding environments, foreign states can supply U.S. corporations with a low-priced option for their fabrication, services, or R A ; D activities ( Lieberman 2004 ) . Foreign states will go on to work to do their concern climes and substructures more attractive to planetary invention leaders. 3.3.1.9. Driven by Company Policy This subdivision touches upon a company s policy, for illustration planetary procurance of services. Larger technology companies can put up divisions abroad where they hire foreign applied scientists to work for their company ( Lieberman 2004 ) . Smaller companies or smaller undertakings are able to be offshore outsourced through confer withing companies ( U.S. or foreign owned ) that facilitate the completion of technology work. The lifting figure of international amalgamations, acquisitions, and coactions, and improved international protection of rational belongings rights have contributed to the offshoring of activities ( Lieberman 2004 ) . After companies such as GE pioneered the offshoring motion in the late 1990s, many other companies followed and the pattern is going more standardised ( Solomon and Kranhold 2005 ) . Now offshoring is a new direction paradigm that corporations are forced to see to stay competitory ( Lieberman 2004 ) . Although offshoring began with big corporations, now that the procedure has matured, little concerns are taking advantage of it. With the outgrowth of agents who locate development centres abroad for U.S. companies, the coordination and direction of little undertakings has become cost effectual and efficient ( Lieberman 2004 ) . Numerous advisers and outsourcing sellers who facilitate the passage can be located easy at web sites such as www.globalsolutionindia.com, www.outsourcing-russia.com, www.shinetechchina.com, www.outsourcephillipines.org, www.outsource2india.com, and www.outsourceromania.com. New Internet based 3rd party outsourcing auctioneers that reach low cost research worker s, applied scientists, and coders from all over the universe are farther lending to the offshoring of skilled labour. Companies are auctioning their design, technology, package, and research undertakings on web sites such as www.projectspool.com where scientists across the Earth compete for the work. By posting R A ; D jobs on www.innocentive.com, corporations can work out jobs at a low cost with scientists around the Earth without the added operating expense costs of wellness and pension benefits ( Lieberman 2004 ) . 3.3.2. Position on Global Sourcing of Services Many people have different sentiments related to the construct of offshore outsourcing. Understanding assorted positions is really of import in today s planetary economic system. The undermentioned affair from some of the literature discusses statements that have been cited in literature to back up the advantages and impact of globally sourcing of technology services. Baily and Farrell ( 2004 ) argue that offshore outsourcing improves the US economic system through corporate nest eggs, a better trade for clients, extra exports, repatriated net incomes, productiveness, and new occupations. The most important benefit is that it lowers corporate costs, which benefits both consumers and stockholders ( Lieberman 2004 ) . The cost nest eggs hike corporate net incomes, raising investor assurance. Offshoring has become a affair of endurance for some U.S. corporations who have to vie globally for market portion. U.S. grosss turn when offshore suppliers create new foreign corporate markets for U.S. merchandises such as telecom equipment and computing machines. As the criterion of life improves abroad, new consumers for U.S. merchandises are created. The chief driver of growing in our economic system is our colossal proficient alteration ( Aeppel 2004 ) . Technical alteration about ever substitutes for unskilled labour, but it creates new skilled occupations, both by making new merchandises and procedures but besides because the care of engineering besides requires skilled labour. Workers freed up from everyday undertakings that have been outsourced are frequently redeployed within the company to higher paying occupations, or on undertakings that generate greater value-added services or merchandises ( Bartlett 2004 ) . During one of the interviews for this research, an executive stated that, some undertakings become feasible due to outsourcing, thereby making more occupations one time the undertaking is complete. While there are benefits to planetary offshoring, advocates frequently fail to turn to the related costs ( Hira 2003 ) . Some people argue that there are serious, long-run effects for many Americans, their communities and the state as a whole. Such inauspicious effects identified by Hira ( 2003 ) are: aˆ? Loss of employment and income for American professional workers if offshoring continues to exercise downward force per unit area on occupation chances, rewards and other signifiers of compensation ; aˆ? Loss of paysheet and income revenue enhancements at the national, province and local degrees at a clip when demands on wage as you go societal insurance plans, such as Social Security and Medicare, and the demand for betterments in our communications, educational, wellness attention and transit substructures are get downing to speed up ; aˆ? Loss of employer parts to authorities sponsored unemployment insurance and worker s compensation plans that will be needed to assist prolong the increasing Numberss of displaced workers whose occupations have been moved offshore ; aˆ? Loss of national economic and technological fight and increasing dependance on foreign beginnings of supply for consumer merchandises, military hardware and defence systems every bit good as the proficient endowment needed to plan, bring forth and keep them ; and aˆ? Further instabilities in international trade and the US balance of payments as America is forced to purchase more merchandises and offshored services than it sells to its major trading spouses. Some of the positions against offshore outsourcing as found in literature stated that if engineering occupations are outsourced due to domestic supply restraints, the mechanism for spread outing domestic supply is short-circuited. For illustration, if a deficit of nurses is met by importing foreign nurses under a visa work plan, domestic nursing schools are improbable to increase their registrations ( Aeppel 2004 ) . The primary downside to outsourcing perceived by American concerns is a loss of institutional cognition, informations security, loss of rational belongings rights, and political hazards. A Gartner research ( 2004 ) survey showed that companies refrained from offshore outsourcing due to concerns over security, the viability of suppliers, and service qualityaˆÂ ¦there are besides political hazards in footings of instability in foreign states and market hazards of a consumer recoil against off shoring companies. America may confront serious negative effects from offshoring. Offshoring of high-tech occupations threatens our national security, exerts downward force per unit area on high accomplishment rewards, and diminishes our revenue enhancement base ( Lieberman 2004 ) . The obvious immediate impact of offshoring is the loss of occupations for American workers. Unlike in old old ages when international competition adversely affected American corporations, this clip it is the workers who are left exposed while corporations benefit from offshoring ( Hira 2004 ) . As houses export critical concern and proficient cognition, they risk losing nucleus competences, in house expertness, and future endowment. Offshore outsourcing of high accomplishment occupations to foreign states may intend passing over to foreign state s future inventions that are the direct consequence of cognition gained by work outing proficient jobs during fabrication, design, research and development ( Lieberman 2004 ) . A state s investing in R A ; D is an index of its future economic wellness. In malice of ongoing globalisation over the past several decennaries, some argue that the United States has been able to keep a healthy economic system due to its leading in invention. This can be attributed to the United States considerable R A ; D investing in high engineering industries such as computing machine systems design and related services, package, communications, semiconducting material and electronic constituents. Innovation in high engineering sectors drives economic growing by making high value occupations, hiking productiveness, raising rewards, supplying international competitory advantage, and bring forthing the following coevals goods and services. Increased efficiency and productiveness derived from advanced stuffs, tools, and procedures generated in high engineering industries strengthen other industries, runing from building to finance. A continued displacement in design and R A ; D to foreign states puts all these economic benefits at hazard, non to reference may hold unintended political and security effects ( Lieberman 2004 ) . Personal economic and national security will be capable to increasing hazard as duty for more and more private, proprietary and mission critical military and national security informations is transferred to other states. The undermentioned outlines the Engineering Societies Positions: Technology societies are charged with protecting the involvements of their members. Many of these organisations have taken a stance on offshore outsourcing. The rank of the National Society of Professional Engineers, NSPE ( dwelling of licensed, professional enginers ) has made the undermentioned statement sing offshore outsourcing ( NSPE Issue Brief 2004 ) : aˆ? Outsourcing of technology work should be done merely when the endowment can non be found in the United States. aˆ? If outsourcing of technology work is done, it should be done utilizing the same regulations, ordinances, Torahs, and ethical codifications that employers and employees are capable to in the U.S. aˆ? The technology work should be performed without endangering national security, and all parties should be made to the full cognizant of the location and the conditions of where seaward work is being performed. 3.4. Cardinal Players in Offshore Outsourcing India is one of the primary states that is used as a beginning for low cost technology services. Despite the recent growing, India s telecommunication substructure still needs to be improved ( Lieberman 2004 ) . India still struggles with low telephone and internet entree rates, and province owned companies dominate the telecom services market. Its economic stableness and political clime are besides high hazard factors, sing the lifting tenseness between India and Pakistan. Some of the grounds for India being a key participant are as follows ( Dham 2004 ) : aˆ? Large English talking local endowment pool, aˆ? Good technology establishments including IITs, and Regional Engineering Colleges, aˆ? The pay rate is low ( every bit much as three times less than U.S. or European rates ) , aˆ? Experienced Indians from the U.S. are progressively willing to return to India, and aˆ? There is a big pool of dedicated difficult working applied scientists with progressively better accomplishments. China is another possible beginning for offshoring technology services. However, China s political clime and weak English linguistic communication accomplishments are important hazards for corporations ( Lieberman 2004 ) . One key concern with China is the hapless rational belongings rights protection ( IPR ) . Other possible states for technology service sourcing include the Philippines, Malaysia and Russia. 3.5. Global Virtual Teaming The substructure to back up practical squads must non be designed by making but instead must be carefully organized, planned, and executed ( Wilczynski and Jennings 2003 ) . Prasad and Akhilesh ( 2002 ) proposes that planetary practical squads be designed with a holistic attack sing an optimum tantrum between the squad construction and the cardinal impacting factors such as aims, work features and situational restraints to present public presentation ( see Figure 8 ) . Prasad and Akhilesh ( 2002 ) proposed a theoretical account for planetary practical squad public presentation ( see Figure 9 ) . This theoretical account shows that the squad construction is impacted by strategic aims, work features, and public presentation restraints. Assorted beginnings, along with consequences from interviews have identified engineering ; direction ; organisation ; undertaking control ; and team communicating as of import points to see in planetary practical squad formation and executing. Each is covered in more item in the undermentioned subdivisions. 3.5.1. Technology Important points related to engineering include puting up an equal web, placing standard applications ( e.g. , standardised collaborative file direction package, CAD design package ) , placing appropriate communicating tools, etc. There are five mutualist factors critical to deploying collaborative engineerings ; see a engineering s handiness, dependability, capableness, supportability, and an person s ability to utilize the engineering ( Klein and Pena-Mora 2002 ) . Key technological barriers include the underdevelopment of a telecommunications substructure ; the high cost of utilizing such services ; the demands on adept clip in upgrading the systems ; and the quickly turning outlooks of users ( Kimble et Al. 2000 ) . Technologies can be categorized into three ( Chinowsky and Rojas 2002 ) : 1. Communication Technologies: These permit persons to convey ideas either synchronously or asynchronously, but do non allow sharing of common informations or informations use ( e.g. , e-mail, facsimile, telephone or teleconference ) . 2. Cooperation Technologies: These permit persons to entree a shared information depository, but do non hold the ability to pull strings the informations in a shared, existent clip experience. The use of the information is restricted to asynchronous entree, use, and poster. 3. Collaboration Technologies: These permit the capableness to visually and orally pass on in add-on to the synchronal, existent clip use of informations. The following engineering characteristics were recommended by Chinowsky and Rojas ( 2002 ) : 1. Choose the appropriate engineering before shiping on a practical squad execution attempt ; 2. Determine security demands for undertaking communications ; 3. Determine degree of security required for document transmittal ; 4. Establish interoperability demands for each undertaking member ; and 5. Print undertaking informations criterions for all the undertaking forces to guarantee consistence throughout the undertaking. Exchanging paperss ; decrypting and encoding ; reassigning graphical images in assorted formats ; accessing web sites ; and utilizing confab installations are illustrations of engineering use that increases over clip ( Igbaria and Tan 1998 ) . Management should be after for the varying interfaces, test the engineering in front of clip, and supply equal proficient support as the work becomes more complex. Chinowsky and Rojas ( 2002 ) concluded with the undermentioned statement: Technology is non the barrier to successfully implementing practical squads although engineering can take to practical teaming failures, sufficient engineering is available to successfully implement practical squads. Rather, revising traditional direction patterns is the key to successfully originating and implementing practical squads. 3.5.2. Management While traditional wisdom on forming and taking on-site squads besides applies to a globally spread squad, pull offing the latter requires more extended subject and attending to inside informations because there are fewer chances for informal or ad-hoc interaction ( Klein and Pena-Mora 2002 ) . Directors responsible for practical undertaking squads need to aline the communicating construction to the undertaking features ( Ahuja and Carley 1998 ) . For everyday undertakings, a hierarchal construction may be preferred, because hierarchies provide efficiency and economic system of communicating. Directors can further a hierarchal communicating construction by advancing specialisation in cognition countries so that all communicating sing a peculiar country is directed through a individual person. On the other manus, complex undertakings should be managed to advance plentifulness of treatment and decentralized decision-making ( Ahuja and Carley 1998 ) . Effective communicating becomes an country of immediate concern for the planetary undertaking director ( GPM ) as he recognizes the communicating demands, adjusts to this environment, and evolves a procedure to convey the proper message ( Guella 1996 ) . Meeting client outlooks, developing high public presentation squads, pass oning, and commanding costs with a geographically dispersed and culturally diverse squad are some of the challenges confronting a GPM. The success of practical squads is to a great extent dependent on the readying of the undertaking leaders. The classs of effectual leading accomplishments in practical undertaking squad or distance direction state of affairss identified by Thompsen ( 2000 ) are: pass oning efficaciously and utilizing engineering that fits the state of affairs ; constructing community among undertaking squad members, based on common trust, regard, equity, and association ; set uping a clear and animating shared intent, vision, ends, and outlooks ; taking by illustration with a focal point on seeable, mensurable consequences ; and coordinating and join forcesing across organisational boundaries. Pull offing planetary undertakings with practical technology squads presents many interesting and ambitious state of affairss. Important undertaking direction cognition countries are: integrating, range, clip, cost, quality, human resources, communications, hazard and procurement direction ( Gezo et al. 2000 ) . Schemes such as developing practical public presentation prosodies, increasing visibleness with frequent deliverables, prototyping and early integrating, and specifying undertaking describing mechanisms have been proposed as ways of supervising distant workers successfully ( Pare and Dube 1999 ) . An apprehension of the economic issues ( costs A ; benefits ) of whether to make up ones mind on the usage of a planetary technology squad is required by decision-makers. They should see both the long term benefits and costs along with the short term benefits and costs. 3.5.3. Organization Increased international competition and the rapid gait of technological alteration are prefering organisations that are thin, fast, and flexible ( Miles 1989 ) . Organization issues such as concern relationships are an country that requires careful consideration while following the services of a planetary practical technology squad. A important sum of research has been performed on squad constructions and it has attracted research workers from countries of organisation design, organisational theory, organisational development and strategic direction. A by and large accepted, yet a simple, definition of construction is that it is an instrument to accomplish the aims. The most seeable and easing facet of squads is their construction ( Prasad and Akhilesh 2002 ) . Trust, societal interaction, and group public presentation were the issues that moved to the head of concern as organisations struggled to accommodate to the debut of practical squads as built-in constituents of organisation p rocedure ( Strauss A ; McGrath 1994 ) . Coherence is an of import facet of the practical squad ( Powell et al. 2004 ) . While practical squads begin with lower coherence, over clip, practical squad members exchange adequate societal information to develop strong coherence ( Chidambaram and Bostrom 1993 ) . The practical organisation is put frontward as a low-cost, extremely antiphonal, adaptable, and flexible manner to form and vie in the face of utmost turbulency and uncertainness in the modern concern environment ( Marshall et al. 2001 ) . The indispensable features of the practical organisation have been argued to be: aˆ? Adaptability, flexibleness and reactivity to altering demands and conditions ; aˆ? Effectiveness in use of resources ; aˆ? Formulation of concern confederations of changing grades of permanency ; aˆ? Dispersion of constituent parts ; aˆ? Empowerment of staff ; aˆ? Stewardship of expertness, know-how, and cognition ( rational capital ) ; aˆ? Low degrees of bureaucratism ; aˆ? Opportunistic behaviours, encompassing alteration and uncertainness ; and aˆ? High extract of IT to back up concern procedures and cognition workers. A well defined squad construction helps each person place the work that must be performed, and it helps the squad understand how different groups and undertakings portion precedency, coordination, supervising and rework mutuality throughout the undertaking. The nature and sum of needed coordination work, nevertheless, may change well, depending on how the undertaking squad is organized-centralization, formalisation, undertaking assignment, decision-making policy, available communicating tools, squad experience ( Kunz et al. 1998 ) . 3.5.4. Undertaking Control This subdivision addresses the more project specific information such as the designation procedure of squad members with planetary practical teaming competences, supervising advancement and public presentation of the design squad, familiarising members with work procedure and civilization in other foreign location, etc. Institutions can be defined as comparatively stable aggregations of patterns and regulations specifying appropriate behaviour for specific groups of histrions in specific state of affairss ( March and Olsen 1998 ) . They consist of informal ( countenances, tabu, imposts, traditions, and codifications of behavior ) , and formal regulations ( fundamental laws, Torahs, belongings rights ) ( North 1990 ) . Harmonizing to North ( 1990 ) , the major function of establishments in a society is to set up a stable ( but non needfully efficient ) construction to political, economic and societal interaction ( Tukiainen et al. 2004 ) . On the one manus, it is argued that the heter ogeneousness of worldviews in a undertaking organisation increases the diverseness of available resources, therefore conveying more creativeness into job work outing. On the other manus, diverseness additions complexness and the possibility of ambiguity and intuition, which might turn out to be debatable with respect to group effectivity in planetary undertakings. Project direction is now taking topographic point in a planetary sphere ( Bauhaus and Lamy 1996 ) . The drawn-out range of planetary concern now requires undertaking directors to work with team members whose attacks to project and people issues vary harmonizing to their civilization. The undertaking director needs to add cultural competency to his nucleus competences. Cultural competency is cognizing how to utilize cross-cultural sensitivenesss and accomplishments to get by with cultural differences that can do miscommunication in the international workplace ( Bauhaus and Lamy 1996 ) . 3.5.5. Team Communication Developing a squad civilization and common communicating processs are indispensable for the development of credibleness and trust among squad members in a practical environment ( Kimble et al. 2000 ) . An betterment in relationships between the parties is likely to better communications more efficaciously than any alterations in communicating techniques ( Higgin and Jessop 1965 ) . Detailss in planning or forming communicating between the squad members that are in collocated offices and besides distant offices must be considered. The first measure to taking a undertaking squad is to acknowledge and appreciate the cultural differences in any international squad ( Mar-Yohana 2001 ) . Successful planetary directors and squad members clearly have a procedure of interaction with cultural differences that underlies everything they do in carry throughing planetary undertakings. A sum-up of these schemes outlined by Bauhaus ( 1995 ) are: 1. Successful planetary participants have extremely developed listening accomplishments ; 2. The planetary participant ever considers if there is a cultural constituent involved ; 3. The planetary participant has a proactive attack in looking for apprehension ; 4. The planetary participant creates a sense of assurance and regard in the squad through esteeming differences ; 5. The planetary participant sees the importance of personally sing the other environment and seeks ways to make that ; 6. The planetary participant takes clip to associate and link ; 7. The planetary participant understands the trouble of talking in a linguistic communication non your ain ; 8. Global participants can qualify their ain civilization so they know what the other civilizations are seeing ; 9. The planetary participant is invariably larning how to be effectual in the face of all difference ; and 10. Global participants have learned how to carry through the undertaking at manus at the same clip they are culturally sensitive. 3.6. Drumhead An indispensable constituent of the lifting usage of practical squads is the geographical distribution afforded by the globalisation of concerns every bit good as the handiness of cheap, advanced information and communicating engineerings ( Evaristo 2003 ) . Companies use GVETs for different grounds. Based on the contractual agreement, companies may be involved with cost driven or agenda goaded undertakings or even both. For illustration, in a fixed ball amount contract both cost and undertaking completion clip are the cardinal demand to a successful undertaking. The drivers for a cost reimbursable type contracts could be different. The demand to be closer to the undertaking location can besides drive companies in the usage of GVETs. Some abroad states may besides hold a jurisprudence that calls for certain per centum of local content demand on any undertakings setup on their shores. To day of the month, there has non been a published survey based on extended research that analyzes why companies are utilizing planetary practical squads for undertakings. This research aims to farther investigate and rank the drivers in the EPC Industry. Companies face many challenges during the GVET use on their undertakings. Some of the challenges are in the initial formation of an seaward office ; dividing the range of work ; engineering, communicating, and direction challenges ; quality control ; and cultural issues. Some of the hazards that companies may acquire exposed to during the GVET use are rational belongings, competitory exposure, spouse instability, and political instability of the abroad state. This research aims to capture the most of import patterns performed by companies in the EPC Industry.